The Compare And Contrast Essay English Language Essay

The Compare And Contrast Essay English Language Essay To begin with, lets clarify look at and contrastw when we think about, we show our perusers a subjects likenesses and when we differentiate, we show our perusers a subjects contrasts. Thoroughly analyze expositions are learning-process papers. You find out about your subject as you assemble and sort out data. This sort of exposition takes a touch of association, and its this authoritative procedure, this social event of realities, that causes you learn as you go. You will make arrangements of characteristics or qualities that every one of your subjects has, and as you do this, you will find bits of knowledge to your subject that, from the outset, you might not have acknowledged were there. Its like purchasing another shirt. The second you spread it out on your bed, you begin seeing things you hadnt saw in the store. Maybe a catch is free, or the pocket is torn, or its a size too large. In any case, theres more! As a canny, examining essayist youre going to pose inquiries of this shirt: why, what, where, when, how, who. Why are fastens on the neckline? What other sort of shirt does this shirt help you to remember? Where was it made? When was it made? How could it get to your store and into your hands? Who made it? The inquiries are interminable. However, you should request that they comprehend your subject. Utilizing why, what, where, when, how, who, you to test into the center and the explanation this shirt exists. A similar sort of examining and revealing will transpire as you layout your subjects characteristics. Youll find a wide range of new things as you inquire as to why, what, where, when, how, who, and as you reveal these new focuses, your article will change. At long last, most papers end up far unique in relation to anticipated. Your Thesis You will offer a proposal, as in a factious article, yet in this exposition, your proposition establishes the pace of your paper. At the end of the day, through your postulation, you need the peruser to comprehend what you intend to look at or differentiate. Keep it basic: Your postulation will be a couple of sentences on what you need to offer (your subject), and if youre looking at or differentiating. Beginning In the event that conceivable, locate a fascinating subject about which you can compose. This is significant in light of the fact that your eagerness will appear in your work. This article requires a blueprint show: you are going to list the characteristics of the two subjects, characteristics that can be analyzed, differentiated, or shared. For instance: lets express your looking into surfing to snowboarding. Your first employment is to list the characteristics of each subject. From these characteristics and your knowledge, you would then be able to build up your proposition. Characteristics of A: surfing Common Qualities Characteristics of B: snowboarding surf on water both utilize a water medium snowboard on day off need wetsuits and trunks both require exceptional garments need winter garments and boots A proposal that will establish the pace of your exposition for the characteristics above may peruse: Though surfing and snowboarding are done in various seasons, these games have a bigger number of likenesses than contrasts. Obviously, the rundown above is deficient, and, maybe, not as scholastic is we would need it to be. Yet, its a beginning. You continue posting characteristics until you trust you have enough data to compose a substantial exposition. A rundown of five to ten characteristics functions admirably for the normal paper. Be that as it may, you may need to list twenty characteristics to get five that will work for you. When posting, it is a great idea to try too hard; along these lines, when youre prepared to compose your paper, you can get rid of the characteristics that wont work and pick the best of the pack. Three Parts Opening: You will start your exposition, acquainting the subjects you plan with thoroughly analyze and finishing your clench hand section with your theory. Body: text by text (first talk about the entirety of An and afterward examine the entirety of B) or point by point (switch back and forth among An and B). In this class you will adhere to point by point. What's more, you will either think about or differentiate, not both. Be cautious, now and again going point by point can make your composing sound dreary and monotonous. Watch your language and progress words. Utilize a few focuses at once. Closure: As in the pugnacious paper, unite everything. Permit your closure of return to your proposition. Utilize the transitional words on the following page to help your papers cognizance. Advances and other associating words and interfacing sentences ought to be utilized all through. Keep in mind: There are no firm principles with respect to what number of correlations or differentiations you should offer. For an intensive investigate your subject, you should offer enough correlations or differentiations or both to offer a substantial expression. Transitional Words (Conjunctival Adverbs) Utilize these words to assist you with associating your musings, your sentences, and your sections: (In case you wish to sound hypercritical, pussyfoot with alert through words, for example, for sure, and obviously.) expansion once more, likewise, and, and afterward, in addition, similarly significant, at long last, first, further, besides, furthermore, in any case, last, also, one, second from now, still, as well examination additionally, similarly, in like manner, comparatively concession without a doubt, normally, obviously differentiate in spite of the fact that, but then, simultaneously, and yet, in spite of that, all things being equal, despite the fact that, for all that, in any case, conversely, disregarding, rather, in any case, in any case, unexpectedly, then again, in any case, in any case, still, however, yet accentuation surely, undoubtedly, truth be told, obviously model or representation all things considered, as a representation, even, for instance, for, all in all, without a doubt, actually, at the end of the day, to put it plainly, it is valid, obviously, to be specific, explicitly, that is, to delineate, therefore, genuinely synopsis with everything taken into account, by and large, as has been stated, at last, in an, all in all, at the end of the day, specifically, so, in less difficult terms, in synopsis, overall, that is, in this way, to put it in an unexpected way, to sum up time arrangement sooner or later, a while later, once more, additionally, and afterward, as long as, finally, finally, around then, previously, plus, prior, in the long run, at long last, in the past, further, besides, what's more, in any case, before, last, of late, in the interim, in addition, next, presently, by and by, second, quickly, all the while, since, up until now, soon, still, in this manner, at that point, from that point, as well, until, up to this point, when

Fast Food Restaurant Business Plan Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Drive-thru eatery Business Plan - Term Paper Example This paper manages the advertising plan of Minnesota Fast Food Restaurant which is a little inexpensive food outlet at Minnesota and has been in tasks for most recent five years. The unit is proposing to change itself into an appropriate drive-through eatery by methods for creative and clever methodologies. This promoting plan depends on both the subjective and quantitative ways to deal with the assortment of information. The subjective methodology will remember the utilization of perceptions and center for measurements in regards to inexpensive food industry. The quantitative methodology will include the utilization diaries, magazines, and online stuff from various sites. By and by the fact of the matter is offering barely any neighborhood inexpensive food things to the overall population of Cottage Grove. This strategy has been made subsequent to making an extensive research and assessing an assortment of issues concerning drive-through joint industry in Minnesota in the city of Co ttage Grove. The primary reason and extent of this arrangement is to give specific data about the business and to feature the basic regions for effective propelling of another drive-through eatery in Minnesota. The information examined in this field-tested strategy depends on some specific realities and has been gathered through number of sources. A cautious endeavor has been made to introduce constant information, be that as it may, this data may change whenever because of event of any adjustments in the objective market, and along these lines the real results may contrast from the anticipated outcomes. 2. Destinations Major goals of Minnesota Fast Food Restaurant concerning money related, promoting, and cultural points of view are: To build the acknowledgment of brand picture of Minnesota Fast Food Restaurant To expand the piece of the overall industry of Minnesota Fast Food Restaurant To make the objective market mindful of the new brands and make a point to persuade them to come and appreciate these brands on numerous occasions Objectives Market share (in Cottage Grave) 2013 to 2014 05-07% By the finish of 2015 07-10% 3. Statements of purpose Generation of income and benefit is the primary motivation behind any association and same will be for Minnesota Fast Food Restaurant. Since it’s a specialist organization unit, in this manner, client care is the base of its reality. Our point is to turn into the principal decision of the clients and make them remaining with us over and over. We have confidence in PEARL methodology as our fundamental belief for example Enthusiasm for greatness in doing everything Execute with positive vitality and earnestness Accountable for development in consumer loyalty and gainfulness Recognize the accomplishment of others and have a ton of fun doing it Listen and all the more critically react to the voice of client 4. KEY TO SUCCESS The key focuses for fruitful propelling of our items and administrations are: Developing of a corporate methodology with respect to the administration of cheap food and meeting the changing tastes of purchaser conduct Unique and inventive menu that may give us a serious edge on

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) Overview

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) Overview Psychotherapy Print Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) Overview By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Medically reviewed by a board-certified physician Updated on July 14, 2019 More in Psychotherapy Online Therapy The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is used by clinicians and psychiatrists to diagnose psychiatric illnesses. In 2013, the latest version known as the DSM-5 was released. The DSM is published by the American Psychiatric Association and covers all categories of mental health disorders for both adults and children. The DSM is utilized widely in the United States for psychiatric diagnosis, treatment recommendations, and insurance coverage purposes.?? The DSM is non-theoretical and focused mostly on describing symptoms as well as statistics concerning which gender is most affected by the illness, the typical age of onset, the effects of treatment and common treatment approaches. Verywell / JR Bee DSM Updates The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual has been revised a number of times in its history. 1952: The DSM-I1968: The DSM-II1974: The DSM-II Reprint1984: The DSM-III1987: The DSM-III-R1994: The DSM-IV2000: The DSM-IV-TR2013: The DSM-5 The newest version of the DSM was published in May of 2013.?? The revision was met with considerable discussion and some controversy. A major issue with the DSM has been around validity. In response to this, the NIMH has launched the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project to transform diagnosis by incorporating genetics, imaging, cognitive science and other levels of information to lay the foundation for a new classification system they feel will be more biologically based.?? Later, NIMH director Thomas R. Insel issued a statement in conjunction with American Psychiatric Association president Jeffrey A. Lieberman noting that the DSM-5 ...represents the best information currently available for clinical diagnosis of mental disorders. The statement went on to suggest that the DSM-5 and NIMH’s own system, the Research Domain Criteria (or RDoC), represent complementary, not competing, frameworks for the classification of mental disorders.?? The DSM-5’s Predecessor: The DSM-IV-TR The DSM-IV was originally published in 1994 and listed more than 250 mental disorders. An updated version, called the DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000 and contained minor text revisions in the descriptions of each disorder.??  Mental health providers used the manual to better understand a clients potential needs as well as a tool for assessment and diagnosis. The DSM-IV-TR described disorders using five different dimensions. This multiaxial approach was intended to help clinicians and psychiatrists make comprehensive evaluations of a clients level of functioning because mental illnesses often impact many different life areas. Axis I: Clinical SyndromesThis axis described  clinical symptoms  that cause significant impairment. Disorders were grouped into different categories such as mood disorders,  anxiety disorders, or eating disorders.Axis II: Personality and Mental RetardationThis axis described long-term problems in functioning that were not considered discrete Axis I disorders. Personality disorders cause significant problems in how a patient relates to the world and include antisocial personality disorder and histrionic personality disorder. Mental retardation is characterized by intellectual impairment and deficits in other areas such as self-care and interpersonal skills.Axis III: Medical ConditionsThese included physical and medical conditions that influence or worsen Axis 1 and Axis II disorders. Some examples include HIV/AIDS and brain injuries.Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental ProblemsAny social or environmental problems that may impact Axis I or Axis II disorders were accounted for in th is axis. These include such things as unemployment, relocation, divorce, or the death of a loved one.Axis V: Global Assessment of FunctioningThis axis allowed the clinician to rate the clients overall level of functioning. Based on this assessment, clinicians could better understand how the other four axes interacted and the effect on the individuals life. Changes in the DSM-5 The DSM-5 contains a number of significant changes from the earlier DSM-IV.?? The most immediately obvious change is the shift from using Roman numerals to Arabic numbers. Perhaps most notably, the DSM-5 eliminated the axis system, instead listing categories of disorders along with a number of different related disorders. Some examples of categories included in the DSM-5 include anxiety disorders, bipolar and related disorders, depressive disorders, feeding and eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and personality disorders. A few other changes in the DSM-5:?? Aspergers disorder was removed and incorporated under the category of autism spectrum disorders.Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder was added, in part to decrease over-diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorders.Several diagnoses were officially added to the manual including binge eating disorder, hoarding disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder While the DSM is an important tool, only those who have received specialized training and possess sufficient experience are qualified to diagnose and treat mental illnesses. Mental health professionals also use the DSM to classify patients for billing purposes. Just as with other medical conditions, the government and many insurance carriers require a specific diagnosis in order to approve payment for treatment.

Middle East Essay - 1381 Words

The Middle East has always been in conflict, from biblical times, to the crusades, and on through modern times. Since around 1900, the conflict has primarily been between two groups, Jews and Arabs. During this time, the British occupied the land and under their control the conflict remained minimal. But within months of their departure, and the division of the land between Israel and the surrounding Arab nations, war broke out. The Arabs were unhappy with the UNs divisions of the land, and in an attempt to obtain the land, which they believed was rightfully theirs; they attacked the State of Israel. To the surprise of many, the armies of Egypt, Syria and Jordan fell to Israeli troops and instead of gaining land, they lost it. Almost†¦show more content†¦Thousands of Israeli men, woman, and children have been killed, most of them civilians, and the US persuades Israel to make concessions, that they should surrender to the terrorists demands. Besides the fact that peace would be allowing terrorism to prevail, peace is an impossible proposition, because the man that Israel is negotiating peace with isnt part of the terrorist groups. Another Reason why peace is not a reasonable option for Israel, is they rightfully own the land and they have no reason to give it back. For these reasons, peace with the Palestinians isnt possible and isnt beneficial to Israel.2 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The United States demand for Middle East peace in hypocritical. Since the September 11th incident, they have been saying that they must strike in response and find Osama Ben Laden so they can show the world that terrorism wont be tolerated. Yet Israel is expected to tolerate terrorism. Since the attack the United States created a quot;listquot; of terrorist groups yet Islamic Jihad, Hamas, and Hezbola werent put on the quot;listquot;, they arent considered terrorist groups by the US. Groups that kill place bombs in populated areas and kill innocent civilians arent considered terrorists. Israel retaliates to these bombings in the same way as the US does yet Israel is shown admonished for these actions. Israel in a similar situation as the United States but only the Israel is seen as committingShow MoreRelatedThe Middle East821 Words   |  4 Pagesorientalist idea of the Middle East. It represented the faulty equation of Islam= Muslim= Arab= terrorist or reli gious fanatics. From the image of the magazine cover, a man dressed in the Middle-East attire can be seen standing on what looks like a balcony with the landscape of the Middle-East in the background. The image in the background presented the Middle East as underdeveloped in an effective manner. The image in the foreground by the top right corner signified the Middle East as an oil-hoardingRead MoreThe Middle East2106 Words   |  9 Pagesbeen more relevant than in the Middle East. Understanding the Middle East as it was and currently is requires an in depth analysis of the events that have so shaped the region. By peering into the premodern, early-modern, modern, and contemporary periods, a comprehension of the Middle East and how it is situated within the global framework will be realized. The premodern period, which ran until 1450, contained two events fundamental to the history of the Middle East, the Birth of Islam, and the splitRead MoreThe Middle East1118 Words   |  5 PagesBahauddin Foizee :The Middle East, especially the West Asian region, is the most volatile region in the world. The major reason of such regional instability is the rivalry between Saudi Arabia and Iran. One of these two rivals, Iran, has been suffering from a weak economy for decades because of the economic sanctions that are imposed on it by the International community for quite a long now. However, on 14th July, 2015, a deal was signed between Iran and the UNSC 5 plus 1 (Britain, China, FranceRead MoreThe Middle East871 Words   |  4 Pagesarticle discusses the evolution of the Middle East and how much of the Middle East is currently coming out of, and in some cases still going through difficult revolutions. The article points to three, possibly four, defining stages in the Middle East. The first is the stage of the Cold War, the second is that of the Old Order, the third is the end to the Old Order, and the fourth is the current stage that they are in now. The point was made that much of the Middle East’s resentment to the West originatedRead MoreThe Middle East1661 Words   |  7 Pages18th centuries in the Middle East were periods marked by severe financial crisis, increased decentralization, and stronger external control by western nations. It was clear that members of Ottoman and Persian military and bureaucratic organizations needed to prove themselves worthy in comparison to the European nations in order to shift the global balance of power back towards the East. As a result, drastic political, economic, and social reforms were implemented in the Middle East throughout the 19thRead MoreThe Involvement Of The Middle East1598 Words   |  7 Pagesincluding innocent civilians, opposing forces, and U.S. troops and its allies. Trillions of dollars have been spent on the involvement in the Middle East for decades by the United States government, which orchestrated these results. The burden financially, has been measured in trillions of dollars, on multiple expenses, all relating to the involvement in the Middle East. Not only have these events impacted the U.S. financially, but many people have had to pay the ultimate price, with millions of peopleRead MoreThe Impact On The Middle East1430 Words   |  6 PagesAll throughout history from the from the pre-modern period all the way to the contemporary period, there have been major events both inside and outside of the middle east that have had an impact on the middle eastern communities. While some were more drastic than others, they all had an impact one way or another that helped shape the society we know of today. Starting with the pre-modern period, in 1095, the pope had called for a crusade which was in fact the only successful crusade. In this situationRead MoreCulture Of The Middle East4300 Words   |  18 Pagesexplored the culture of the Middle East because I find it very interesting and different from my own. I feel as if many people hold a strong negative feeling against people from the Middle East because of terrorist attacks in the past. Middle Eastern culture is different from American culture and some people are not culturally aware so they do not understand Middle Eastern culture, therefore, people judge off of what they know. After visiting and researching the Middle East I have came to change myRead MoreWomen Of The Middle East937 Words   |  4 PagesThe women in the Middle East is less fortunate than any other women around the world. They was not giving the fair opportunity to develop their rights in the home, workplace or even have the opportunity to voice their opinion in politics (Elizabeth, 2010). Being a woman in the Middle East has always been one of the hardest things to endure starting as a child from punishment all the way down to adultery. There laws are one of a kind that has a wide range from the Islamic laws also known as the ShariaRead MoreWater in the Middle East944 Words   |  4 Pages The edition of the U.S. Defense Department â€Å"Lebanon : a review of the country† ( 1989 ) also states that â€Å" in the late 1970’s - early 1980’s Lebanese reported a plea of derivation of water from the small tributaries of the Hasbani to Israel† (Middle East International, â„â€" 458, 10 September 1993). Western and Arab media published an information that the scale of water derivation to Israel were much more, only from the Litani – up to 55 % of the annual discharge . Among all the details in particular

Descriptive Epidemiological Analysis Of Lyme Disease Essay

Descriptive Epidemiological Analysis of Lyme disease Lyme disease is a spirochetal infection, which is transmitted by the bite of infected Ixodes ricinus complex ticks. It is brought about essentially by Borrelia burgdorferi in the United States. Lyme disease was initially perceived clinically in 1977 as Lyme arthritis amid investigations of a group of youngsters in Connecticut who were thought to have adolescent rheumatoid joint inflammation. The etiology of Lyme disease was found to be a spirochete in the mid - 1980s. The rate of Lyme disease and the geographic conveyance of cases in the United States have expanded consistently from that point forward (Beard, 2016). Lyme disease is the most widely recognized tick-borne disease in the United States and Europe (Beard, 2016). Since the ticks that transmit Lyme disease are frequently encountered in backyards and recreational areas, a high level of public awareness and education should be made available to the general public for areas that have a high level of Lyme disease. From 2005 to 2014, a sum of 251,061 cases of Lyme disease was accounted for in the United States. In 2014, Lyme disease was the fifth most common reportable illness in the United States. Recent studies have shown about roughly 300,000 individuals are determined to have Lyme disease in the United States every year (Beard, 2016). Descriptive epidemiology can be broken down by using the 5W model which is used in the military for almost everything.

Alexander Shulgin Free Essays

Ever sense my freshman year in high school, I have always expressed extreme interest in biochemistry and pharmacology. I believe this is because in the past, I have been prescribed many different antidepressant and ADHD medications. I was always very curious as to how these psychoactive medications worked. We will write a custom essay sample on Alexander Shulgin or any similar topic only for you Order Now I would look them up and read all about the different types of antidepressants and how they worked. From selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRl’s) to Norepinephrine- dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRl’s). My fascination with different medications and ow they worked brought me to many different famous biochemists and chemical engineers, but there was one man who always stood out to me. A â€Å"rogue chemist,† named Alexander Shulgin. Sasha, as his friends call him, is widely famous for his discovery of over 230 different psychedelic drugs varying from the 2C family, DOX family, and various other phenethylamines tryptamines. Even with such a gargantuan amount of accomplishments, Shulgin is most famous for rediscovering and resynthesizing methylenedioxymethamphetamine, or as it is most commonly recognized as, MDMA. MDMA is a semi-synthetic drug first discovered some time before 1912. A german pharmaceutical company called Merck first discovered and patented this compound while searching for a medication that would stop bleeding. They never tested it orally, and therefore never found a real purpose for it. Decades later, on September 8, 1976, Sasha synthesized MDMA. Two years later, the first human study was published by Sasha and another chemist by the name of Dave Nichols. They described the effects as â€Å"an easily controlled altered state of consciousness with emotional and sensual overtones. When Sasha discovered its effects after ingestion, he introduced this compound to many psychiatrists, in order for them to allow patients to ingest a small dosage in order to help them speak more freely. The psychiatrists were so impressed by the effects of using MDMA in psychotherapy that they would speak to other colleagues. Word spread very quickly, and many people were astounded by how well it wo rked. Many patients were reported to have said that one session with an administered dosage of MDMA felt like years of therapy. As word got out about a drug that gave you empathy and self-acceptance, use of MDMA slowly became more public. Companies were mass producing this substance and selling it legally due to the fact that if users took a higher dosage, they would feel vast amounts of euphoria. As more reports of MDMA abuse were put in media, the DEA decided to schedule MDMA in the schedule one category. This means they had to prove that MDMA had a high potential for abuse while having no medicinal benefits. Many therapists challenged this idea, and after years of debate, MDMA was scheduled. I can only imagine how upset Shulgin could have been. He had found what was called â€Å"penicillin for the soul. † He had Just discovered a miracle drug capable of llowing a different outlook on life. It allowed patients to open up not only to others, but to themselves. He had heard so many reports from patients exclaiming how this therapy nad changed their lives and allowed them to diagnose their issues and even solve them. It is commonly said that MDMA could still be legal to this day if it had not been for the rave movement and ignorance of others. Sasha has not been shy about letting others know that he is very upset with the outcome of such a powerful medication, and for good reason. He has worked with the Drug Enforcement Administration many times and has eceived many awards for his work. In fact, in order to carry out consulting work with the DEA, Shulgin obtained a DEA Schedule I license for an analytical laboratory, which allowed him to possess and synthesize any illicit drug. Sasha set up a chemical synthesis laboratory in a small building behind his house, which he uses to synthesize and test the effects of psychoactive drugs to this day. His laboratory is littered with Jars and Jars of various compounds with their chemical structure drawn on them, which he calls his dirty pictures. Over the course of this time, he has written nd recorded the synthesis of these various compounds in two different books titled PIHKAL (Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved) and TIHKAL (Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved). He is working on his last book now. Even with his many accomplishments, Shulgin is in no way rich. His only source of income continues to be from the books he has published. He has never sold any of his substances or withheld information on how to synthesize certain compounds. His creations have only made their way to the streets through chemists in China who read through his books and notes and create these compounds in their laboratories o then export to the United States in a completely legal manner, as these drugs are almost completely unheard of and unclassified. As Sasha gets older, he suffers from many different ailments, and has no way to pay for them except through donations, which he has only recently started to accept. He lives a quiet, modest life with his wife and he refuses to conduct any more interviews. I understand why many people consider drugs a taboo subject. I am sure some people may even consider it inappropriate to discuss in a high school classroom, but l, Just like Alexander Shulgin and many others, find extreme interest in psychoactive ompounds and how they can affect our world. Without the study of the more extreme side effects of compounds, how we can expect to progress in our world of modern medicine? Just because a chemical can be abused, does not mean that we should probihibit not Just the possession of said compound, but also the study of it. We live in a world of fear and ignorance, and if we do not fght it, we will never progress. If Sasha has taught me anything, it is to fight for what I believe is morally correct, and I advise you all to do the same. Long live Alexander Shulgin and his dirty pictures. How to cite Alexander Shulgin, Papers

South America Essay Example

South America Essay Although industrialization is synonymous with progress, in the modern world it has also been the cause of many changes of energy and natural resources pattern of human settlement, social and economic context of health and in the natural environmental constituents. There have been so many instances in South America where lives have been lost, health damaged and serious injuries inflicted because environmental hazards have been ignored or the identification of hazards has taken too long. By understanding and identifying the risks early and establishing ways of assessing and controlling existing and new environmental hazards benefits associated with modernization may be enjoyed without degradation of environmental conditions.These days South America is facing various environmental problems. Among several causes of environmental pollution three major causes effecting the environment of South America are1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Air pollution2.  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Water pollution3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Misuse of fertilizers insecticides.(Lamb, 2006, 145, 1)Air pollutionAir pollution is a serious problem which South America has faced for years. Due to air pollution percentage of oxygen in atmosphere is reducing day by day. As a result increasing number of people is suffering from lung problems. Poisonous gases in atmosphere are killing small animals bird sand effecting human lives. The precipitation areas in industries have caustic vapors these cause skin problems. In some industries people work in fluoride environment .Continuous exposure to fluoride leads to a disease Fluoric in which bones and teeth are effected. Air pollution is also casting drastic effect in vegetation of South America. The result of which is comparatively less and irregular rainfall, which again causes dryness and scarcity of water. These causes soil erosion because of which fertility of la nd reduces resulting in more loss of vegetation. The industrial areas of South America like Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay severely suffer from air and water pollution.South American countries have vast deposits of mineral resources. Argentina abounds in deposit of coal, lead, copper etc, Columbia is a leading supplier of emerald, and Venezuela leads in production and export of oil outside Middle East, Venezuela ranks 8th in the world in production of diamonds. Mining is one of the major occupations in countries of South America. Major environmental impacts of mining operations are: (i) degradation of land; (ii) pollution of surface and ground water resources; (iii) pollution of air. (iv) Deforestation including loss of flora and fauna; (v) rehabilitation of effected population including tribal; (vi) impacts in historical monuments and religious places.Prime causes of Air pollution are follows1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Poisons   bases lice Sulfure d ioxyde, Nitrogà ¨ne oxydes, volatile hydro-carbons, etc.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carbon monoxides   and other Poisonous   gases emitting from factories3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Carbon dioxide emitting from factories when raw materials or fuel is burned increases global warming.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Ozone layer in our atmosphere is constantly being effected by cfcs and aerosols emitted by electronic goods like refrigerators, air conditioners and Foam blowing factories.5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Methane gas emitting from open garbage also contribute in increasing global worming. (Lamb, 2006, 199, 1-6)Water pollutionDue to water pollution lives of aquatic plants and animals are very adversely affected. Deaths due to water born diseases are increasing day by day in South America.Poisonous sewage wastes, plastic packets thrown in water bodie s are killing aquatic plants and animals.There are various causes of water pollution such as wastes running from industries and factories, septic tanks, oil secretion from water vehicles, wastes from construction sites etc thrown in water bodies. The rivers on South America   like Amazon , Parana , Uruguay , Salvado   flowing in industrial areas of Argentina , Brazil gets   highly polluted with poisonous wastes thrown from industries. Poisonous pesticides used in agricultural areas get dissolved in ground water and effects human and animal health hazardously. Mineral extracted interact with ground and surface water thus polluting water resources. Loss of top soil due to deforestation also depletes ground water resources and results in drying up of perennial sources like springs and streams especially in hill areas. (Lamb, 2006, 121, 1)Environmental pollution due to misuse of fertilizers and pesticidesIn South America due to urbanization  Ã‚   availability of agricultural lan ds has decreased. To cope up with this problem increasing yield substantially was necessary. To fulfill this purpose use of fertilizers and pesticides are increasing day by day. Pesticides can be divided into three subgroups namely Insecticides, Fungicides Herbicides. Insecticides comprise of Chlorine, Phosphorous, Carbonate chemicals such as DDT, Aldrin etc. Herbicides are generally used for controlling growth of weeds. These cause less harm to the environment than insecticides. Example of Herbicides is Atrazine, Propachlor etc. Herbicides do not leave long term effect on soil. Fungicides are mostly used in vegetable farms and orchards. The factors such as soil type, depth of water table, rain fall infiltration and persistence of compound in soil determine the entry of any pesticide in ground water. Some water soluble pesticides get dissolved in ground water and enter into food and effect human and animal health. Some pesticides contain aromatic compounds which do not get degraded easily after washing fruits and vegetables. These pesticides along with food cause health hazards. Water soluble pesticides cause cancer, birth defects and gene mutation. Most of the agricultural areas of South America lie in Brazil. Brazil, the largest country of South America having 8,511,965 sq km area is mainly an agricultural country. Agriculture accounts for about 9% of GDP. In some areas of Brazil on the banks of Amazon River still primitive methods of agriculture are followed.   Use of fertilizers and pesticides are limited in these areas. But in coastal areas of Brazil and Argentina, on banks of rivers Parana , Uruguay   and Salvado modern techniques of agriculture are followed. Here fertilizers and insecticides are used extensively. (Lamb, 2006, 201, 2-7)Suitable remedies to control environmental pollutionThere are several ways to reduce environmental pollution.Plantation of trees reduces air pollution. Trees absorb Carbon Dioxide  Ã‚   and give out oxygen. This mai ntains atmospheric equilibrium.Industrial pollution can be reduced by following steps.Applying cleaner production means systematically addressing all phases of the production process and product life-cycle. Cleaner production encompasses energy and raw material conservation, reduction in the use of toxic substances and product and process changes that reduce wastes and pollutants previously produced. All these options have the same aim, to reduce the risk of human and the environment from industrial Activities and consumption, and to do so in the most cost effective way possible. Only the control methods, end-of-pipe (EOP) devises were devised to solve the problems of polluted surface waters , intoxicated air and other results of industrial developments. EOP wastes, also less hazardous than the raw wastes .Reducing domestic wastes in another way to prevent environmental pollution. Waste management includes taking measures so that garbage are not left open, recycling of waste product s which serves both the purposes of   saving resources and reducing environmental pollution. Such as recycling plastic bags, bottles etc. , preparing paper and fertilizers from garbage. The process of making fertilizers from house hold wastes is called composting. The fertilizers in this process more useful in increasing soil fertility. Help of non profit organizations could be taken for this purpose. Technical know how could be taken from other countries in designing machines to solve this purpose.To reduce water pollution Llma dung can be used .   This process is used in tin and silver mines of Bolivia to treat leaking poisonous waters. In this process polluted water is passed through compost beds of limestone and dung. BActeria living in this dung absorb acids in polluter water making it alkaline. It was invented by Professor Paul Younger, professor of Hydro chemical Engineering at Newcastle University. U.K. Lima dung is available in abundant quantities in South America, anim al husbandry being one of chief professions there.Another way of reducing water pollution is harvesting fish and oysters. These absorb metal content in water. Aquatic plants also serve this purpose. (King, 2006, 119, 4)Measures taken by Government of India to solve environmental problemsTo reduce environmental pollution according to the Forth Five year plan a committee set up in January 1980, for reviewing the existing legislative measures and administrative machinery for ensuring environmental protection and for recommending ways to strengthen them. In 1985 Ministry Of Environment And Forest was formed   to serve as the focal point in the administrative structure for the planning , promotion and coordination of environmental and forestry programmes. Many enactments related to protection of environment now being administered by central and state governments. Such as The Water ( prevention and control of pollution ) Act,1974; The Air ( prevention and control of pollution ) Act,1981 ;   The Water ( prevention and control of pollution ) Act,1977; The Environment Protection Act   ,1986; etc.   (Kar, 2006, 211, 3)The Environment Protection Act, 1986, provides for the protection of environment. The salient features of this Act are as follows: (a) conferring powers on the central government to :(i) take all necessary measures for protecting quality of environment ; (ii) coordinate Activities of states , officers , other authorities under this Act.   (iii) Plan and execute a nation wide programme for prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution; (iv) lay down standards of discharge of environmental pollutants. (v) Issue directions to any person, officer or authority including the power to direct closure , prohibition or regulation of supply of electricity water or any other services. Etc. (b) it offers powers to persons to complain to the courts regarding any violation of the provisions of the Act. (c) The Act makes obligatory for the person i n charge of a place to inform prescribed authorities regarding any accidental discharge or apprehended discharge of any pollutant in excess of prescribed standards. Authorities on receipt of such information shall take remedial measures to prevent mitigate pollution caused by such accidents and expenses incurred by the authorities in respect of remedial measures are recoverable with interest from the polluter; (d) it prescribed stringent penalties for violation of the provisions of the Act. (e) Jurisdictions of civil courts is barred under the Act. (King, 2006, 116, 3)The Ministry Of Environment and Forest has announced a policy statement for abatement of   pollution in 1992, according to which ,the key elements   of pollution prevention are adoption of best available   clean and practicable technologies rather than end of pipe treatment. An environment Action Programme has been formulated covering wide ambit of subjects such as clean technologies, improvement of water quality , institutional and human resource development , forestry   and natural resource accounting. An Eco-Mark label has been introduced to label consumer products that are environment friendly .Under the E(P) Act ,1986, affluent and emission standards in respect to 55 specific industries have been notified. 84 laboratories have been  Ã‚   recognized as environmental laboratories. Minimum National Standards (MINAS) for effluent emissions from specific industries have been formulated.Action plans have been formulated to divert the sewage flow into the river to other locations for treatment and conversion into a valuable energy source.   Renovation of existing trunk rivers and outfalls to prevent overflow of sewage into rivers thus construction of interceptions to divert the flow of sewage and other liquid wastes in the river and renovations and construction of pumping stations and sewage treatment plants to recover maximum possible resources, construction of community toilets etc.Au tomobiles which have been used for 15 years have been banned.Methods of pollution control succeeded in India up to some extent. But major factors that hindered its success are1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lack of resources.2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lack of education3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Orthodox mentality of people.4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Corruption (King, 2006, 98, 1-3)ConclusionThe world today is under the grip of many pressing problems. Of them the problem of environmental pollution has reached a serious proportion; and it has undoubtedly posed a definite threat to man’s existence itself. All the governments of all the countries of the world have, every now and then been, giving expressions to their deep-toned worries and concern for it, the government of South America is one among them. The ecologists have been tirelessly working to explore the events and to device the means to combat and contain effectively this menace of environmental pollution. The pollution of environment owes its roots, to a very large extent, to the thoughtless and irresponsible acts of man. Environmental pollution may greatly be contained if the people can properly be educated in civic since. (Kar, 2006, 245, 3) South America Essay Example South America Essay Introduction The continent of South America has about one-eighth of the Earths land surface, situated between latitudes 12 °N-55 °S and longitudes 80 °-35 °W; no other continent has a greater latitudinal span. Eighty percent of its land mass is within the tropical zone, yet it extends into the subantarctic. The extensive zones of temperate and cold climates in the vicinity of the Equator, in the Andes, are unique. The land area of about 17,519,900-17,529,250 km? is under the jurisdiction of 13 countries (Table 49); French Guiana is governed as an overseas department of France. The regions 1995 population of c. 320 million people is estimated to reach 452 million people in 2025. Three of the worlds 21 megacities are in South America: Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro (WRI, UNEP and UNDP 1994). Geological setting Although the neotropics may be conveniently considered as a single phytogeographic unit, the region is geologically complex. The neotropics include not only the South American continental plate but the southern portion of the North American plate, as well as the independent Caribbean plate (Clapperton 1993). The complicated geological history of the region, for example as these plates intermittently separated and collided through the Cretaceous and the Tertiary, provides the milieu within which plant evolution has been superimposed. South America has been an island continent during most of the period of angiosperm evolution, whereas Central America constitutes one of the two tropical parts of the Laurasian world continent. Both South America and North America have been moving westward, roughly in tandem, since the breakup of Pangaea in the Mesozoic. We will write a custom essay sample on South America specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on South America specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on South America specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In contrast, the Antillean plate with its flotsam of Antillean islands formed only during the Cenozoic and has moved in a retrograde eastern direction, at least with respect to its larger neighbours. Whereas South America and North America have been widely separated through most of their geological histories, there has been generally increasing contact between them through most of the Cenozoic, culminating in their coalescence with formation of the Isthmus of Panama c. 3. 1 million years ago (Keigwin 1978). The date of this epochal event in neotropical geological history has been gradually estimated to be younger, with estimates of 5. 7 million years ago giving way to as recently as 1. 8 million years ago (Keller, Zenker and Stone 1989). In addition to their Pleistocene connection via the Isthmus of Panama, South America and North America apparently were more or less directly interconnected via the protoAntilles for a short time near the end of the Cretaceous, prior to formation of the Caribbean plate (Buskirk 1992). The outstanding geological feature of South America is the Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, which extends in a nearly straight line of over 7000 km from the north to the southern tip of the continent. The Andes have the highest mountain in the Western Hemisphere, the highest mountain in the worlds tropics, and as measured from the centre of the Earth (rather than metres above sea-level), the highest mountain in the world. The most important break in the north-south sweep of the cordillera is the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where the eastern chain of the cordillera is entirely ruptured (by the Maranon River) and even the western chain dips to 2145 m (at the Abra de Porculla). The existence of this massive mountain range has had profound effects on plant and animal evolution in South America, and consequently has profound effects on essential conservation priorities. In essence, the Andes represent a classical plate tectonic upthrust of continental rock, as the leading edge of the westward-moving South American plate collides with the oceanic Pacific plates. The Southern Andes are the oldest, with significant uplift already present in early Cenozoic times, prior to the Oligocene. Most of the uplift of the Central Andes was in the Miocene or later, whereas most of the uplift of the northern portion of the cordillera has been Plio-Pleistocene (van der Hammen 1974). To the north the Andes become more geologically complex, breaking into three separate cordilleras on the Ecuador/Colombia border. Much of the north-western margin of South America, including Colombias western and central cordilleras, appears to be amassed suspect terrane rather than an integral part of the South American continental plate (Juteau  et al. 1977; McCourt, Aspden and Brook 1984). Much of the rest of the South American continent consists of two great crystalline shields that represent the western portion of what was once Gondwanaland. The north-eastern portion of the continent constitutes the Guayana Shield, whereas much of Brazil south of Amazonia is underlain by the Brazilian Shield. These two major shields were formerly interconnected across what is today the Lower Amazon. They consist of a Precambrian igneous basement overlain by ancient mucheroded Precambrian sediments. The Guayana region has been the most heavily eroded, with basement elevations mostly below 500 m interrupted by massive flattopped table mountains, the fabled tepuis, typically rising to 2000 m or 2500 m. The peak of the highest of these, Cerro Neblina or Pico da Neblina on the Venezuela/Brazil border, reaches an altitude of 3015 m and is the highest point in South America outside the Andes. The tepuis and similar formations are highest and most extensive in southern Venezuela, becoming smaller and more isolated to the west and east where La Macarena near the base of the Andes in Colombia and the Inini-Camopi Range in French Guiana respectively represent their ultimate vestiges. The quartzite and sandstone of the Guayana Shield erode into nutrient-poor sands, and much of the Guayana region is characterized by extreme impoverishment of soils. The rivers draining this region are largely very acidic blackwater rivers, of which the Rio Negro is the most famous. The Brazilian Shield is generally higher and less dissected, with much of central Brazil having an elevation of 800-1000 m. The Brazilian Shield is mostly drained by clearwater rivers such as the Tapajos and Xingu. In contrast to these ancient shields, the Amazonian heartland of South America is low and geologically young. Prior to the Miocene most of Amazonia constituted a large inland sea opening to the Pacific. With uplift of the Central Andes, this sea became a giant lake that gradually filled with Andean sediments. When the Amazon River broke through the narrow connection between the Guayanan and Brazilian shields near Santarem, Brazil, Amazonia began to drain eastward into the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the region remains so flat that ocean-going ships can reach Iquitos, Peru, which is only 110 m above sea-level, yet 3000 km from the mouth of the Amazon and less than 800 km from the Pacific Ocean. Most of Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is below 200 m in elevation. The process of Amazonian sedimentation is continuing, as the sediment-laden white-water rivers course down from the Andes, continually changing their channels and depositing and redepositing their sediments along the way. About 26% of Peruvian Amazonia shows direct evidence of recent riverine reworking (Salo  et al. 1986). With the lack of relief, it is not surprising that rather fine nuances of drainage, topography and depositional history are often major determinants of vegetation. Like Amazonia, some other distinctive geological features of the South American continent are relatively low, flat and geologically young, such as the chaco/pantanal/pampa region to the south, the Venezuelan/Colombian Llanos to the north and the trans-Andean Choco region of Colombia and Ecuador to the west. Large portions of these areas have been inundated during periods of high sea-level in the past, and large portions of all of these regions are seasonally inundated presently. One aspect of the geological history of Latin America that has received much biogeographic attention is the series of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and their effects on distribution and evolution of the present neotropical biota. It is clear from the palynological record that major changes in vegetation were associated with the cycles of Pleistocene glaciation (e. . van der Hammen 1974), although to what extent lowland Amazonia was predominantly drier (e. g. Haffer 1969; van der Hammen 1974), colder (Colinvaux 1987; Liu and Colinvaux 1988) or both, and how this affected the Pleistocene distribution of tropical forest, remain hotly contested (Colinvaux 1987; Rasanen, Salo and Kalliola 1991). Although most of the corroborative geomorphological evidence for dry periods in the tropical lowlands during the Pleist ocene is now otherwise interpreted (Irion 1989; Colinvaux 1987), some new data look promising. There are also several other theories that attempt to explain aspects of present biogeography on the basis of past geological events, including river-channel formation and migration (Capparella 1988; Salo  et al. 1986; Salo and Rasanen 1989), hypothesized massive flooding in south-western Amazonia (Campbell and Frailey 1984), and the formation of a putative giant Pleistocene lake in Amazonia (Frailey  et al. 1988). Mesoamerica For its size, Middle America is even more complex geologically than South America (see Central America regional overview). Nuclear Central America, an integral part of the North American continent, reaches south to central Nicaragua. The region from southern Nicaragua to the isthmus of Darien in Panama is geologically younger and presents recent volcanism, uplift and associated sedimentation. Like South America, the northern neotropics have a mountainous spine that breaks into separate cordilleras in the north. In general the Middle American cordilleras are highest to the north in Mexico, and lowest in Panama to the south-east. In Mexico, the geological picture is complicated by a band of volcanoes that bisects the continent from east to west at the latitude of Mexico City. This eje volcanico transversal is associated with the Mexican megashear, along which the southern half of the country has gradually moved eastward with respect to the northern half. In southern Central America, volcanism has been most intensive in Costa Rica, which has two sections of its Central Cordillera reaching above treeline. In northern Costa Rica and adjacent Nicaragua the volcanoes become gradually reduced in size and more isolated from each other to the north. Similarly in Panama the Central Cordillera is over 2000 m high to the west near the Costa Rican border but only about 500 m high in most of the eastern part of the country. In central Panama, the Panama Canal cuts through a continental divide of only 100 m elevation, and in the San Juan River/Lake Nicaragua area of Nicaragua the maximum elevation is even less. For montane organisms, these interruptions in the cordillera represent major biological discontinuities. The Yucatan Peninsula area of Mexico, Guatemala and Belize represents a geologically anomalous portion of Middle America. It is a flat limestone formation more like the Greater Antilles or Peninsular Florida than the mountainous terrain and volcanic soil of most of Middle America. Limestone is otherwise relatively rare in the continental neotropics, in contrast to many other parts of the world, with small outcrops like those in the Madden Lake region of central Panama or the Coloso area of northern Colombia being associated with peculiar floras. These areas, like the Yucatan Peninsula, tend to show distinctly Antillean floristic affinities, paralleling the geological ones. Caribbean The Antillean islands constitute the third geologic unit of the neotropics (see Caribbean Islands regional overview). The Antilles make up in geological complexity what they lack in size. The most striking geological anomaly is Hispaniola, which is a composite of what were three separate islands during much of the Cenozoic. In addition to being completely submerged during part of the midCenozoic, the southern peninsula of Hispaniola was probably attached to Cuba instead of Hispaniola until the end of the Cenozoic. Jamaica too was completely submerged during much of the mid-Cenozoic, and has a different geological history from the rest of the Greater Antilles, with closer connections to Central America via the nowsubmerged Nicaraguan Rise. Possibly a collision of the western end of the Greater Antilles island arc with Mexico-Guatemala fragmented its western end to form Jamaica. Also phytogeographically and conservationally important, some of the Antilles have extensive areas of distinctive substrates. In addition to large areas of limestone, most of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) have significant areas of serpentine and other ultrabasic rocks formed from uplift of patches of oceanic crust during the north-eastward movement of the Caribbean plate. The Lesser Antilles are small and actively volcanic. Most of the other smaller islands are low limestone keys with little or no geological relief. These patterns are clearly reflected in the Antillean flora. The most striking concentrations of local endemism occur in areas of ultrabasic rocks or on unusual types of limestone on the larger islands. The Lesser Antilles, Bahamas and other smaller islands have only a depauperate subset of the generally most widespread Antillean taxa. Vegetation The neotropics include a broad array of vegetation types commensurate with their ecological diversity. Along the west coast of South America are both one of the wettest places in the world Tutunendo in the Choco region of Colombia, with 11,770 mm of annual precipitation, and the driest no rain has been recorded in parts of the Atacama Desert of Chile. The largest tract of rain forest in the world is in the Amazon Basin, and Amazonia has received a perhaps disproportionate share of the worlds conservation attention. While the forests of Upper Amazonia are the most diverse in the world for many kinds of organisms, including trees as well as butterflies, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, other vegetation types have equal or greater concentrations of local endemism and are more acutely threatened. In particular, the plight of dry forests and of Andean montane forests are beginning to receive increased attention. Some isolated areas of lowland moist forest outside of Amazonia also have highly endemic floras and are currently much more threatened than Amazonia. In the following paragraphs are sketched the major neotropical vegetation types, followed by a conservation assessment of each. At the very broadest level, the lowland vegetation types of South America and the rest of the neotropics may be summarized as: 1. Tropical moist forest (evergreen or semi-evergreen rain forest)  in Amazonia, the coastal region of Brazil, the Choco and the lower Magdalena Valley, and along the Atlantic coast of Central America to Mexico. 2. Dry forest (intergrading into woodland)  along the Pacific side of Mexico and Central America, in northern Colombia and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and adjacent Peru, the Velasco area (Chiquitania) of eastern Bolivia, a broad swath from north-west Argentina to north-east Brazil encompassing chaco, cerrado and caatinga, and with scattered smaller patches elsewhere. 3. Open grassy savanna  in the pampas region of north-eastern Argentina and adjacent Uruguay and southernmost Brazil, the Llanos de Mojos and adjacent pantanal of Bolivia and Brazil, the Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and the Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna in the Guayana region. 4. Desert and arid steppe  in northern Mexico, the dry Sechura and Atacama regions along the west coast of South America between 5 °S and 30 °S, and in the monte and Patagonian steppes of the south-eastern part of the Southern Cone of South America. 5. The  Mediterranean-climate region  of central Chile. 6. The  temperate evergreen forests  of southern Chile with an adjacent fringe of Argentina. More complex montane formations occur along the Andean Cordillera which stretches the length of the western periphery of South America, in the more interrupted Central American/Mexican cordilleran system, in the tepuis of the Guayana region and in the coastal cordillera of southern Brazil. Moist and wet forests In general, forests receiving more than 1600 mm (Gentry 1995) or 2000 mm (Holdridge 1967) of annual rainfall are evergreen or semi-evergreen and may be referred to as tropical moist forest. In the neotropics, lowland tropical moist forest is often further subdivided, following the Holdridge life-zone system, into moist forest (2000-4000 mm of precipitation annually), wet forest (4000-8000 mm) and pluvial forest (over 8000 mm). Nearly all of the Amazon Basin receives 2000 mm or more of annual rainfall and constitutes variants of the moist forest. There are also several major regions of lowland moist forest variously disjunct from the Amazonian core area. These include the region along the Atlantic coast of Central America (extending into Mexico), the lower Magdalena Valley of northern Colombia, the Choco egion along the Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador, and the coastal forests of Brazil. Lowland moist forest is the most diverse neotropical vegetation type, structurally as well as taxonomically. In most lowland moist-forest and wet-forest regions around a quarter of the species are vines and lianas, a quarter to a half terrestrial herbs (including weeds), up to a quarter vascular epiphytes and only about a quarter trees (Gentry and Dodson 1987; Gentry 1990b). To the extent that smaller organisms such as herbs and epiphytes may demand different conservation strategies than large organisms like trees (or top predators), this habitat diversity assumes conservation importance. Diversity patterns are also important for conservation planning. There is a strong correlation of plant community diversity with precipitation wetter forests generally are more botanically diverse. For plants the most speciesrich forests in the world are the aseasonal lowland moist and wet forests of Upper Amazonia and the Choco region. For plants over 2. 5 cm dbh in 0. 1-ha samples, world record sites are in the pluvial-forest area of the Colombian Choco (258-265 species); for plants over 10 cm dbh in 1-ha plots, the world record is near Iquitos, Peru (300 species out of 606 individual trees and lianas). Concentrations of endemism do not necessarily follow those of diversity. Local endemism appears to be concentrated in cloud-forest regions along the base of the northern Andes and in adjacent southern Central America (cf. Vazquez-Garcia 1995), and in the north-western sector of Amazonia where the substrate mosaic associated with sediments from the Guayana Shield is most complex (Gentry 1986a). Overall regional endemism in predominantly moist-forest areas is greatest in Amazonia, with an estimated 13,700 endemic species constituting 76% of the flora (Gentry 1992d). However many of these species are relatively widespread within Amazonia. The much more restricted (and devastated, see below) Mata Atlantica forests of coastal Brazil have almost three-quarters as many endemic species (c. 500) as Amazonia and similarly high endemism (73% of the flora) (Gentry 1992d). Moreover a larger proportion of the Mata Atlantica species probably are locally endemic. On the other side of South America, the trans-Andean very wet to wet and moist forests of the Choco and coastal Ecuador are also geographically isolated and highly endemic (cf. Terborgh and Winter 1982). Estimates of endemism in the Choco phytogeographic reg ion are c. 20% (Gentry 1982b). Probably about 1260 or 20% of western Ecuadors 6300 naturally occurring species also are endemic (Dodson and Gentry 1991). For the northern Andean region as a whole, including both the coastal lowlands of western Colombia and Ecuador and the adjacent uplands, Gentry (1992d) estimated over 8000 endemic species, constituting 56% of the flora. Moreover this is probably the floristically most poorly known part of the neotropics, perhaps of the world, surely with several thousand mostly endemic species awaiting discovery and description. Dry forests There are seven main areas of dry forest in the neotropics, and by some estimations this may be the most acutely threatened of all neotropical vegetations. The interior dry areas of South America are outstanding in their regional endemism, estimated at 73%. Two of the most extensive neotropical dry-forest areas represent manifestations of the standard interface between the subtropical high pressure desert areas and the moist equatorial tropics. In Middle America, this area of strongly seasonal climate occurs mostly along the Pacific coast in a narrow but formerly continuous band from Mexico to the Guanacaste region of north-western Costa Rica. There are also outliers farther south in the Terraba Valley of Costa Rica, Azuero Peninsula of Panama, and even around Garachine in the Darien (Panama), partially connecting the main Middle American dry forest with that of northern South America. These western Middle American dry forests are made up almost entirely of broadleaved deciduous species. In addition, the northern part of the Yucatan and large areas of the Antilles are covered by dry-forest variants. Most of the Caribbean dry forests are on limestone, and their woody species tend to be distinctively more sclerophyllous and smaller leaved than are the Pacific coast dry-forest plants. In the driest areas, both these types of dry forest tend to smaller stature and merge into various kinds of thorn-scrub matorral. In South America, only the extreme northern parts of Colombia and Venezuela reach far enough from the Equator to enter the strongly seasonal subtropical zone. Floristically and physiognomically this northern dry area is very much like similarly dry areas of western Middle America. The strongly seasonal region of northern South America also includes the open savannas of the Llanos extending from the Orinoco River west and north to the base of the Eastern Cordillera of he Colombian Andes and the north slope of the Coast Range of Venezuela. Large areas of the lowlying, often poorly drained Llanos are seasonally inundated, especially in the Apure region. The main area of tropical dry forest in South America is the chaco region, encompassing the western half of Paraguay and adjacent areas of Bolivia and Argentina, south of 17 °S latitude. The chaco is physiog nomically distinctive in being a dense scrubby vegetation of mostly smallleaved, spiny branched small trees interspersed with scattered large individuals of a few characteristic species of large trees. To the south, the chaco gives way to the desert scrub of the Argentine monte. There is a distinctive but generally neglected area of dry forest at the interface between the chaco and Amazonia in Bolivia. The names Chiquitania and Velasco forest have been used locally in Bolivia to refer to this vegetation, which extends from the Tucuvaca Valley and Serrania de Chiquitos in easternmost Santa Cruz Department interruptedly westward to the base of the Andes and along much of the lower Andean slopes of the southern half of Bolivia. This region of closed-canopy dry forest is physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, with tall broadleaved completely deciduous (caducifolious) trees. Although it has been locally regarded as merely representing the transition between the chaco and Amazonia, it is a floristically and physiognomically distinctive unit that should be accorded equivalent conservation importance to the other major dry-forest vegetation types (Gentry 1994). The chaco is adjoined to the north by two large and phytogeographically distinctive areas of dry forest, the cerrado and caatinga, which cover a small portion of easternmost Bolivia and most of the Brazilian Shield area of central and north-eastern Brazil. The typical vegetation of the cerrado region consists of wooded savanna with characteristically gnarled sclerophyllous-leaved trees with thick twisted branches and thick bark, widely enough separated to allow a ground cover of grass intermixed with a rich assortment of woody-rooted (xylopodial) subshrubs. The cerrado also includes areas where the trees form a nearly closed canopy (cerradao), and large open areas of grasses and subshrubs with no trees at all (campo limpio and campo rupestre). Although the cerrado is appropriately considered a kind of dry forest, some cerrado regions actually receive more rainfall than do adjacent forest regions; excess aluminium in the soil may be as important as the climate in determining its distribution. The even drier forest of the caatinga of north-eastern Brazil extends from an appropriately subtropical 17 °S latitude farther north to a surprisingly equatorial 3 °S. Why this region should have such low rainfall remains poorly understood. Another climatic peculiarity is the irregularity of its rainfall, not only with low annual precipitation, but also with frequent years when the rains fail almost completely. The typical vegetation of the caatinga relatively low, dense, small-leaved and completely deciduous in the dry season is physiognomically similar to that of the chaco. The final major South American dry-forest area is the coastal forest of north-western Peru and south-western Ecuador. Even more anomalous in its geographical setting than the caatinga, this dry-forest region is positioned almost on the Equator. The occurrence of dry forest so near the Equator is due to the offshore Humboldt Current. While similar cold-water currents occur along mid-latitude western coasts of other continents, the Humboldt Current is perhaps the strongest of these and is the only cold current reaching so near the Equator. The dry forest of coastal Peru and adjacent Ecuador is (or at least was, see below) physiognomically similar to that of western Central America, tall with a closed canopy of broadleaved completely deciduous trees. There also are a number of scattered smaller patches of tropical dry forest and/or savanna in various interAndean valleys, around Tarapoto, Peru, the Trinidad region of Bolivia, Brazils Roraima area, the Surinam/Brazil border region, on Marajo Island, and in the pantanal region of the upper Paraguay River. Grasslands and deserts Grasslands and deserts occupy smaller areas of the neotropics than they do in Africa or most higher latitude continents. The main grassland region of the neotropics is the pampas region between about 39 °S and 28 °S and encompassing most of Uruguay as well as adjacent eastern Argentina and southernmost Brazil. The other major grassland area is the llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela. Smaller predominantly grassland regions occur in north-eastern Bolivia (Llanos de Mojos) and the south-eastern Guayana region (Gran Sabana and Sipaliwini savanna). There are also areas with few or no trees and dominated by grasses in the cerrado and pantanal regions of Brazil, and scattered outliers associated with local edaphic peculiarities elsewhere. None of the major grassland regions has many endemic species, in contrast to the campos rupestres of the Brazilian Shield and the Guayana area whitesand savannas, which have many endemics. This contrast is especially marked in southern Venezuela where some savanna patches have clay soils and a llanos-type flora of widespread species, whereas others have sandy soils and a flora of Amazonian affinities with many endemic species (Huber 1982). The desert regions of Latin America are confined to northern Mexico, the monte (Morello 1958; Orians and Solbrig 1977) and Patagonian steppes of Argentina, and the narrow Pacific coastal strip of northern Chile and Peru. The 3500-km long South American coastal desert is one of the most arid in the world most of it is largely devoid of vegetation. This region is saved from conservational obscurity, however, by the occurrence of islandlike patches of mostly herbaceous vegetation in places where steep coastal slopes are regularly bathed in winter fog. Although these lomas formations are individually not very rich in species (mostly fewer than 100 spp. ), they have a very high degree of endemism due to their insular nature. The overall lomas flora includes nearly 1000 species, mostly annuals or geophytes. Diversity and endemism in the lomas formations generally increase southward, where cacti and other succulents are also increasingly represented (Muller 1985; Rundel  et al. 991). Montane vegetation The main montane-forest area of the neotropics is associated with the Andes. A major but more interrupted montane-forest strip is associated with the mountainous backbone of Central America. Venezuelas Cordillera de la Costa phytogeographically is essentially an Andean extension, although geologically distinct from the Eastern Cordi llera of the Colombian Andes. The tepui summits of the Guayana Highlands, though small in area, constitute a highly distinctive and phytogeographically fascinating montane environment. The Serra do Mar along Brazils south-eastern coast is mostly low elevation but has a few peaks reaching above treeline with a depauperate paramo-like vegetation. The Andes may be conveniently recognized in three segments: northern Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador; central-Peru and Bolivia; and southern-Chile and Argentina. In general the northern Andes are wetter, the central and southern regions drier. The main biogeographic discontinuity in the Andean forests is associated with the Huancabamba Depression in northern Peru, where the extensive system of dry interAndean valleys of the Maranon River and its tributaries entirely bisects the Eastern Cordillera and is associated with a topographically complex region having unusually high local endemism. Treeline in the tropical Andes occurs around 3500 m, depending on latitude and local factors. Above treeline, the wet grass-dominated vegetation of the Venezuelan, Colombian and northern Ecuadorian Andes is termed paramo; this drier vegetation, occurring from Peru to Argentina and Chile, is the puna. Colombian and Venezuelan paramos are characterized by  Espeletia  (Compositae) with its typical pachycaul-rosette growth form. The vegetation above treeline of most of Ecuador and northernmost Peru, locally called jalca in Peru, is ecologically as well as geographically intermediate; although generally called paramo in Ecuador, this region lacks the definitive  Espeletia  aspect of the typical northern paramos. While individual high-Andean plant communities are not very rich in species, many different communities can occur in close proximity in broken montane terrain. Thus the se